henri viii épouses

[45] His absence from the country, however, had prompted his brother-in-law, James IV of Scotland, to invade England at the behest of Louis. [183], Cromwell did much work through his many offices to remove the tasks of government from the Royal Household (and ideologically from the personal body of the King) and into a public state. 1. [128] Soon after the marriage, however, Queen Catherine had an affair with the courtier Thomas Culpeper. The reformers' efforts lay behind the publication of the Great Bible in 1539 in English. [97] For most observers, this personal loss was the beginning of the end of this royal marriage. [228] Henry was also responsible for the creation of a permanent navy, with the supporting anchorages and dockyards. Il est passé à la postérité comme étant le roi sanglant aux six épouses. Kildare's successor, the 9th Earl, was replaced as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland by Thomas Howard, Earl of Surrey in 1520. Tallandier, Paris, 1979. En effet, la cause du divorce fut relié au fait qu'après vingt années de vie commune et de nombreuse grossesses, Catherine n'avait réussi qu'à sauvegarder un seul enfant, une fille qu'ils appelèrent Marie. [7] In 1493, at the age of two, Henry was appointed Constable of Dover Castle and Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports. They were also supported by battlefield artillery and the war wagon,[222] relatively new innovations, and several large and expensive siege guns. Vrai ou faux: elle avait d’abord épousé Arthur, frère aîné d’Henri VIII? [nb 3], The king and queen were not pleased with married life. 1. [11], In 1502, Arthur died at the age of 15, possibly of sweating sickness,[12] just 20 weeks after his marriage to Catherine. Henry was an intellectual, the first English king with a modern humanist education. The king was also granted the power to further determine the line of succession in his will, should he have no further issue. He has been described as "one of the most charismatic rulers to sit on the English throne" and his reign has been described as the "most important" in English history. His health rapidly declined near the end of his reign. Both men were subsequently convicted of high treason, however – More on the evidence of a single conversation with Richard Rich, the Solicitor General. 1543, Aug.-Dec.- Vol. Vol. 18, pt. Catherine Parr (v. 1512 – sept. 5, 1548) était la sixième et dernière épouse de Henri VIII, roi d'Angleterre.Elle était réticente à l'épouser - il avait fait exécuter ses deuxième et cinquième épouses - mais dire non à une proposition du roi aurait pu avoir de graves conséquences. Offaly led a mixture of Pale gentry and Irish tribes, although he failed to secure the support of Lord Darcy, a sympathiser, or Charles V. What was effectively a civil war was ended with the intervention of 2,000 English troops – a large army by Irish standards – and the execution of Offaly (his father was already dead) and his uncles. Henry VIII was survived by three children, each of whom sat on the throne of England: Edward VI (ruled 1547–53), Mary I (ruled 1553–58), and Elizabeth I (ruled 1558–1603). Comment ont-elles marqué le règne du "lion d'Angleterre", et qui étaient-elles? Henry spent much of his wealth on maintaining his court and household, including many of the building works he undertook on royal palaces. Malheureusement, Anne Boleyn le déçut amèrement. The reason the Irish regarded the Pope as their overlord was that Ireland had originally been given to King Henry II of England by Pope Adrian IV in the 12th century as a feudal territory under papal overlordship. He frequently used charges of treason and heresy to quell dissent, and those accused were often executed without a formal trial by means of bills of attainder. The Star Chamber's overall structure remained unchanged, but Wolsey used it to provide much-needed reform of the criminal law. Mais ce qu¿elles ont été est parfois bien différent de ce que l¿histoire nous en a dit. [23] As Catherine wrote to her father, "our time is spent in continuous festival". En fait, c'est elle qui lui donna la sérénité d'une vie de couple paisible, bien que son règne fût plutôt court. Devant l'impossibilité d'un divorce et les pressions de sa maîtresse, Henri décida de procéder à un mariage secret, sans demander la permission du pape, provoquant ainsi le schisme. This was increased only slightly by Henry. Scarisbrick largely kept Elton's regard for Cromwell's abilities, but returned agency to Henry, who Scarisbrick considered to have ultimately directed and shaped policy. The result was to encourage self-dissolution. [217] Although little opposition to the supremacy could be found in England's religious houses, they had links to the international church and were an obstacle to further religious reform.[218]. Catherine était toutefois écervelée, insouciante, et de moeurs un peu trop légères. Probably seeing the possibility of marrying Anne, the third was ultimately the most attractive possibility to the 34-year-old Henry,[60] and it soon became the King's absorbing desire to annul his marriage to the now 40-year-old Catherine. Her father preferred her to stay in England, but Henry VII's relations with Ferdinand had deteriorated. 1519–1523.- Vol. [215] The extent to which the dissolution of all houses was planned from the start is debated by historians; there is some evidence that major houses were originally intended only to be reformed. [170] Both the rise and fall of court nobles could be swift: although the often-quoted figure of 72,000 executions of thieves during the last two years of his reign is inflated,[171] Henry did undoubtedly execute at will, burning or beheading two of his wives, 20 peers, four leading public servants, six close attendants and friends, one cardinal (John Fisher) and numerous abbots. 1 1543, Jan.-July.- Vol. [17] Cohabitation was not possible because Henry was too young. 18, pt. Both were duly executed in the summer of 1535. Bien entendu, ces femmes provenaient toutes de milieux fort différents, et les circonstances qui les ont portées au trône diffèrent toutes. As he aged, he became severely overweight and his health suffered. Henry was an extravagant spender, using the proceeds from the dissolution of the monasteries and acts of the Reformation Parliament. [188] He was executed on 28 July 1540. Yet as E. L. Woodward put it, Henry's determination to divorce Catherine was the occasion rather than the cause of the English Reformation so that "neither too much nor too little must be made of this divorce". [201] These included the Statute in Restraint of Appeals (passed 1533), which extended the charge of praemunire against all who introduced papal bulls into England, potentially exposing them to the death penalty if found guilty. Il est mort le 28 janvier 1547 à Westminster, Londres, (Angleterre). [17] A papal dispensation was only needed for the "impediment of public honesty" if the marriage had not been consummated as Catherine and her duenna claimed, but Henry VII and the Spanish ambassador set out instead to obtain a dispensation for "affinity", which took account of the possibility of consummation. pt.]. Anne Boleyn. Catherine étant espagnole, elle avait été élevé en dévote. The Scottish Regent Lord Arran agreed to the marriage in the Treaty of Greenwich on 1 July 1543, but it was rejected by the Parliament of Scotland on 11 December. Commenté en France le 16 juillet 2017. [231] Until 1513, Henry continued the policy of his father, to allow Irish lords to rule in the king's name and accept steep divisions between the communities. 1545, Jan.-July.- Vol. During his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, Henry conducted an affair with Mary Boleyn, Catherine's lady-in-waiting. [121] Anne's previous betrothal to the Duke of Lorraine's son Francis provided further grounds for the annulment. 1537, Jan.-May.- Vol. Deux femmes ont été exécutées, une est décédée pendant l'accouchement et deux mariages ont été annulés. Anne Boleyn était une femme déterminée et futée, et ne voulait aucunement se contenter d'un rôle de second ordre. Henri Tudor naît le 28 juin 1491 et est le second fils d’ Henri VII et d’Elizabeth d’York. Dimly remembering the wars of the Roses, vaguely informed as to the slaughters and sufferings in Europe, the people of England knew that in Henry they had a great king.[244]. [13] Arthur's death thrust all his duties upon his younger brother, the 10-year-old Henry. [141][138] However, Henry had refused Charles' request to march against Paris. [208] Overall, the rest of Henry's reign saw a subtle movement away from religious orthodoxy, helped in part by the deaths of prominent figures from before the break with Rome, especially the executions of Thomas More and John Fisher in 1535 for refusing to renounce papal authority. 1294-end and index, This page was last edited on 16 December 2020, at 21:26. [86] To guard against this, in 1538 he began to build a chain of expensive, state-of-the-art defences along Britain's southern and eastern coasts, from Kent to Cornwall, largely built of material gained from the demolition of the monasteries. Tout le monde connait Henri VIII. Many fled abroad, including the influential Tyndale,[210] who was eventually executed and his body burned at Henry's behest. 1538, Aug.-Dec.- Vol. [17][20] The new king maintained that it had been his father's dying wish that he marry Catherine. Cependant, Henry … [227] Tactically, Henry's reign saw the Navy move away from boarding tactics to employ gunnery instead. Henri VIII Résumé Barbe-Bleue aux six épouses, géant glouton, monarque tyrannique, réformateur religieux à l’origine de la rupture avec l’Église catholique romaine, telles sont les images qui surgissent à l’esprit lorsque est évoqué le nom du roi d’Angleterre Henri VIII. 2. 10. 16. The nominal profit made was significant, helping to bring income and expenditure together, but it had a catastrophic effect on the country's economy. A leur mariage en 1543, elle avait juré d'"être bonne, obéissante au lit et à la table, jusqu'à la mort". After a false pregnancy or miscarriage in 1534, he saw her failure to give him a son as a betrayal. De plus, la réputation de la reine est de plus en plus sulfureuse. Puis, Henri VII, sur le point d'expirer, conseilla à son fils Henri d'épouser sa belle-soeur devenue veuve afin de préserver l'alliance espagnole. 3, pt. [32], Opposition to Henry's religious policies was quickly suppressed in England. The chronic wound festered for the remainder of his life and became ulcerated, preventing him from maintaining the level of physical activity he had previously enjoyed. [143][147] According to another study, Henry's history and body morphology may have been the result of traumatic brain injury after his 1536 jousting accident, which in turn led to a neuroendocrine cause of his obesity. Un jeune homme athlétique qui a grandi célèbre beaucoup plus tard dans la vie, il est surtout connu pour avoir six épouses (partie de sa quête d’un héritier mâle) et de briser l’église anglaise loin de Roman Catholicisme. [107] On 12 October 1537, Jane gave birth to a son, Prince Edward, the future Edward VI. The careful diplomacy of Cardinal Thomas Wolsey had resulted in the Treaty of London in 1518, aimed at uniting the kingdoms of western Europe in the wake of a new Ottoman threat, and it seemed that peace might be secured. légende. Henri VIII est le fils d'Henri VII et d'Elisabeth d'York. The visitation focussed almost exclusively on the country's religious houses, with largely negative conclusions. Figure mythique du roi responsable de l'exécution de ses épouses, Barbe-Bleue constitue l'une des expression de nos terreurs enfantines. Henri VIII (28 juin 1491 28 janvier 1547), est un roi d'Angleterre de 1509 à 1547. Certains disent que le jeune roi était tombé amoureux de Catherine, qui était bien plus âgée que lui. Il avait désespérément besoin d'un fils (croyait-il) pour assurer la pérennité de la dynastie Tudor. En effet, le roi s'était amouraché de cette jeune femme qui pensait-il pourrait enfin lui donner un héritier mâle. Il espère d’elle un fils, mais elle accouche d’une fille, Elisabeth. 1. [227] He also flirted with designing ships personally. [159] He was an accomplished musician, author, and poet; his best known piece of music is "Pastime with Good Company" ("The Kynges Ballade"), and he is reputed to have written "Greensleeves" but probably did not.[160]. Henry VIII (28 June 1491 – 28 January 1547) was King of England from 1509 until his death in 1547. A letter from George Taylor to Lady Lisle dated the 27 April 1534 says that "The Queen hath a goodly belly, praying our Lord to send us a prince". Deuxième monarque de la jeune Maison Tudor qui venait de mettre un terme à la guerre des Deux-Roses, il fût amené à contracter six mariages. [241] Until the break with Rome, it was widely believed that Ireland was a Papal possession granted as a mere fiefdom to the English king, so in 1541 Henry asserted England's claim to the Kingdom of Ireland free from the Papal overlordship. Henry secured Boulogne for eight years. Il n’a pas du tout été préparé à devenir roi étant élevé par sa mère et ses sœurs. Knight was unsuccessful; the Pope could not be misled so easily. [163], Henry was a large, well-built athlete, over 6 feet [1.8 m] tall, strong, and broad in proportion. In 1541, Henry had the Irish Parliament change the title "Lord of Ireland" to "King of Ireland" with the Crown of Ireland Act 1542, after being advised that many Irish people regarded the Pope as the true head of their country, with the Lord acting as a mere representative. Rankin, Mark, Christopher Highley, and John N. King, eds. Einstein, Lewis. Combien d'épouses Henri VIII avait-il? Henri VIII. [92] Henry VIII promised the rebels he would pardon them and thanked them for raising the issues. Anne Boleyn, les 40 mois qui ont fait l'Angleterre. Apart from permanent garrisons at Berwick, Calais, and Carlisle, England's standing army numbered only a few hundred men. 1. Son choix s'arrêta sur Anne de Clèves, qu'il épousa en janvier 1540. 1540, Jan.-Aug.- Vol. The child was christened Elizabeth, in honour of Henry's mother, Elizabeth of York. In her place, Anne was crowned queen consort on 1 June 1533. [177] His use of these courts to pursue personal grievances, and particularly to treat delinquents as mere examples of a whole class worthy of punishment, angered the rich, who were annoyed as well by his enormous wealth and ostentatious living. [66][68] After a short period in which Henry took government upon his own shoulders,[69] Sir Thomas More took on the role of Lord Chancellor and chief minister. Miracle, elle lui donne un fils, Edouard, en 1537 ! [130] When questioned, the queen could have admitted a prior contract to marry Dereham, which would have made her subsequent marriage to Henry invalid, but she instead claimed that Dereham had forced her to enter into an adulterous relationship. Charles l'ayant emporté, il apparaît que la neutralité anglaise n'est plus de mise. En novembre 1541, apprenant les infidélités de Catherine Howard, elle fût exécutée en février 1542. 1537, June–Dec.- Vol. Elle le taxa de crise de jalousie dont le roi n'était pas habitué, puis, tout comme Catherine, enfanta d'une fille, puis d'un fils mort-né. 5. [86] Wolsey had many years before conducted the censuses required for an overhaul of the system of militia, but no reform resulted. Le roi Henri VIII est connu pour avoir un grand nombre de femmes et les avoir toutes ou presque éliminées d'une manière ou d'une autre. Catherine Parr (v. 1512 – sept. 5, 1548) était la sixième et dernière épouse de Henri VIII, roi d'Angleterre.Elle était réticente à l'épouser - il avait fait exécuter ses deuxième et cinquième épouses - mais dire non à une proposition du roi aurait pu avoir de graves conséquences. [37], In 1510, France, with a fragile alliance with the Holy Roman Empire in the League of Cambrai, was winning a war against Venice. Francis I likewise became king of France upon the death of Louis in 1515,[50] leaving three relatively young rulers and an opportunity for a clean slate. 4, pt. [134] In 1543, the Third Succession Act put them back in the line of succession after Edward. These included acts of diplomacy (including royal marriages), declarations of war, management of the coinage, the issue of royal pardons and the power to summon and dissolve parliament as and when required. He turned to law, also picking up a good knowledge of the Bible, and was admitted to Gray's Inn in 1524. It was this argument Henry took to Pope Clement VII in 1527 in the hope of having his marriage to Catherine annulled, forgoing at least one less openly defiant line of attack. 20, pt. Certainly war with the combined might of the two powers would have been exceedingly difficult. Mais ce n'est pas le seul point commun entre les deux hommes… 28 mai 2015 | 5108 vues; Toutes nos vidéos sur Les Tudors Abonnez-vous à notre chaîne YouTube. Malgré le fait que ce mariage fut a priori politique, Henri avait des exigences physiques auxquelles sa nouvelle épouse ne correspondait pas. Henry VII had not involved Parliament in his affairs very much, but Henry VIII had to turn to Parliament during his reign for money, in particular for grants of subsidies to fund his wars. Leur mariage n'aura duré que six malheureux mois. Le seul crime d'Anne Boleyn aurait été de ne pas avoir donné un fils à Henri VIII. George Boleyn and the other accused men were executed on 17 May 1536. [226], Henry is traditionally cited as one of the founders of the Royal Navy. Behind the Scenes | PBS", "Anne Boleyn: Fatal Attractions (review)", "The jousting accident that turned Henry VIII into a tyrant", "Names in the News: Henry VIII Termed Victim of Scurvy", Sir John Dewhurst in The alleged miscarriages of Catherine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn: 1984, page 52, "Competing Narratives: Recent Historiography of the English Reformation under Henry VIII", "Henry VIII's Obesity Following Traumatic Brain Injury", Henry VIII to Frederic, John, and George, Dukes of Saxony. En juillet 1540, il prenait pour épouse Catherine Howard, nièce du duc de Norfolk, tout comme Anne Boleyn. The strong air of competition laid to rest any hopes of a renewal of the Treaty of London, however, and conflict was inevitable. 2. Henri VIII, l'insatiable roi aux six épouses Charmant, tant qu'il est amoureux, Henri VIII se mue en monstre sanguinaire au premier signe… Recevez chaque semaine l'actualité des têtes couronnées They reemerged during the reign of Henry's daughter Mary (1553–58). [190] By comparison, Henry's reign was a near disaster financially. [211] In September 1535, Cromwell commissioned a more general visitation of religious institutions, to be undertaken by four appointee visitors. [25] Others (most notably Edmund de la Pole) went unreconciled; de la Pole was eventually beheaded in 1513, an execution prompted by his brother Richard siding against the king. 1. L'année suivante, le roi pensa à trouver une nouvelle épouse qui pourrait prendre soin de lui, lui tenir compagnie, et qui saurait "créer un foyer pour sa famille". Richmond had never before visited Ireland, his appointment a break with past policy. [105], The day after Anne's execution in 1536 the 45-year-old Henry became engaged to Seymour, who had been one of the Queen's ladies-in-waiting. Anne de Cleves. Henri VII rendit l’âme le 21 avril 1509, à l’âge de 52 ans et c’est Henri qui monta sur le trône sous le nom d’Henri VIII. In 1538, the chief minister Thomas Cromwell pursued an extensive campaign against what his government termed "idolatry" practised under the old religion, culminating in September with the dismantling of the shrine of St. Thomas Becket at Canterbury. Charles brought the Empire into war with France in 1521; Henry offered to mediate, but little was achieved and by the end of the year Henry had aligned England with Charles. Elle se levait aux quatre heures pendant la nuit afin de s'agenouiller en prières. As a consequence, the king was excommunicated by Pope Paul III on 17 December of the same year. The complexities and sheer scale of Henry's legacy ensured that, in the words of Betteridge and Freeman, "throughout the centuries, Henry has been praised and reviled, but he has never been ignored". The incentive to comply with Henry's request was an accompanying barony, and thus a right to sit in the Irish House of Lords, which was to run in parallel with England's. 23 février 2020 Sandra Di Giusto Commentaires 0 Commentaire. 1538, Jan.-July.- Vol. He was a good lover, he was very generous: the wives were given huge settlements of land and jewels—they were loaded with jewels. Lire aussi Quand Henri VIII était jeune et beau, par Dominique Dhombres. If Mary's issue failed, the crown was to go to Elizabeth, Henry's daughter by Anne Boleyn, and her heirs. 2. 1539, Aug.-Dec.- Vol. His disagreement with Pope Clement VII on the question of such an annulment led Henry to initiate the English Reformation, separating the Church of England from papal authority. Henry finally went to France in June 1544 with a two-pronged attack. [200], In any case, between 1532 and 1537, Henry instituted a number of statutes that dealt with the relationship between king and pope and hence the structure of the nascent Church of England. Catherine Parr (c. 1512-5 septembre 1548) était la sixième et dernière épouse de Henri VIII, roi d’Angleterre. 1546, Sept.-1547, Jan.- Addenda: Vol. Les Tudors. Although Henry would have read the verse in its Latin (vulgate) form, the translation used in the 1604 King James Bible is instructive: "And if a man shall take his brother's wife, it is an unclean thing: he hath uncovered his brother's nakedness; they shall be childless". Historic World Leaders. Despite several peace treaties, unrest continued in Scotland until Henry's death. Cultivé, raffiné, passionné, despotique et fastueux, Henri VIII, roi aux six épouses qui, après avoir été un zélateur fougueux de l'Eglise catholique, se sépara de Rome pour pouvoir divorcer à son aise et se proclama chef suprême de l'Eglise d'Angleterre, est un monstre de l'histoire. that Henry himself initiated the period of abstinence, potentially after a brief affair – see. En 1533, l'archevêque de Cantorbéry prononce le divorce, et Henri VIII épouse Anne Boleyn ; il rompt avec le pape et se proclame chef de l'Église d'Angleterre. An invasion of France was planned for 1543. Several who had been imprisoned by his father, including the Marquess of Dorset, were pardoned. Or, la virginité de Catherine étant mise en doute, sa mère, Isabelle de Castille, s'empressa d'obtenir une dispense pour régler cette affaire. 1545, Aug.-Dec.- Vol. [18] Catherine was therefore left in limbo for some time, culminating in Prince Henry's rejection of the marriage as soon he was able, at the age of 14. Utile. When Thomas Butler, 7th Earl of Ormond died, Henry recognised one successor for Ormond's English, Welsh and Scottish lands, whilst in Ireland another took control. [172] Henry was little more, in other words, than an "ego-centric monstrosity" whose reign "owed its successes and virtues to better and greater men about him; most of its horrors and failures sprang more directly from [the king]". 2. [189], Henry inherited a vast fortune and a prosperous economy from his father, who had been frugal. [129] Though Henry originally refused to believe the allegations, Dereham confessed. [192] Henry took pride in showing off his collection of weapons, which included exotic archery equipment, 2,250 pieces of land ordnance and 6,500 handguns. [202] Other acts included the Supplication against the Ordinaries and the Submission of the Clergy, which recognised Royal Supremacy over the church. [40][41] Henry then pulled off a diplomatic coup by convincing the Emperor to join the Holy League. They were charged with high treason and were executed in 1510. Dewhurst writes of how the pregnancy could have resulted in a miscarriage or stillbirth, but there is no evidence to support this, he therefore wonders if it was a case of pseudocyesis, a false pregnancy, caused by the stress that Anne was under – the pressure to provide a son. [246] The effect of endowing Henry with this ability, however, was largely negative in Scarisbrick's eyes: to Scarisbrick the Henrician period was one of upheaval and destruction and those in charge worthy of blame more than praise. [146] Alternatively, his wives' pattern of pregnancies and his mental deterioration have led some to suggest that he may have been Kell positive and suffered from McLeod syndrome. Henry was an avid gambler and dice player, and excelled at sports, especially jousting, hunting, and real tennis. "Henri VIII". In part, it helped to bring about a period of very high inflation from 1544 onwards. Nevertheless, the French were pushed out of Italy soon after, and the alliance survived, with both parties keen to win further victories over the French. Le roi la surnomma "la jument des Flandres", ce qui ne devait guère la flatter. The descendants of Henry's sister Margaret—the Stuarts, rulers of Scotland—were thereby excluded from the succession. En fait, on demanda à "Catrin" de dire la vérité sur ses moeurs de catin en lui faisant miroiter la clémence du roi, ce qui fonctionna. En terminant, on peut se demander qui, à cette époque, marqua davantage l'histoire: Henri ou ces femmes? Le roi Henri VIII d'Angleterre avait six femmes, dont une seule a survécu à la mort du roi. Muriel St Clair Byrne, editor of the Lisle Letters, believes that this was a false pregnancy too. Munie d'une bonne dose de fierté et de dignité, elle était également bien éduquée. De plus, il aura l'occasion au cours de son long règne de 38 ans de contracter six épouses, ce qui caractérisa ce roi. Les 6 épouses de Henri VIII d'Angleterre. Le roi crut qu'il était victime de sorcellerie, et chercha un moyen de se débarrasser de cette porteuse de malheurs. Après la mort de son dernier mari, Thomas Seymour prévoyait la marier, mais le roi, à qui on ne peut rien refuser, retarda le projet. He was skilled on the lute and played the organ, and was a talented player of the virginals. 1509–1514 and Index.- Vol. Henri Viii - Un "Dieu" Anglais Aux Six Épouses pas cher : retrouvez tous les produits disponibles à l'achat dans notre catégorie Histoire, actualité, politique Ainsi, les fiançailles eurent lieu en 1503. dynastie. Le roi avait bien préparé son coup, car depuis plus de six mois, Jeanne avait été assuré des intentions du roi. Le règne de Henri VIII devient autoritaire : de nombreuses exécutions ont lieu, dont celles de deux de ses femmes, de l'évêque John Fisher (1535), des ministres Thomas More (1535) et Thomas Cromwell (1540) et bien d'autres encore. The only evidence for a miscarriage in 1535 is a sentence from a letter from Sir William Kingston to Lord Lisle on 24 June 1535 when Kingston says "Her Grace has as fair a belly as I have ever seen". Both hoped for friendly relations in place of the wars of the previous decade. This change did, however, also allow a policy of peaceful reconciliation and expansion: the Lords of Ireland would grant their lands to the King, before being returned as fiefdoms.

La Légende De Saint Nicolas Tapuscrit, Je Suis Marseille Paroles, Albert Samain Poèmes, Bain De Vapeur Visage Bienfait, Assure Le Retour Mots Fléchés, Rigobert Song Salaire,